History
ANCIENT HISTORY
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
The Indus Valley civilization was an ancient civilization
thriving along the Indus river
and the Ghaggar-Hakra river in
what is now Pakistan and north-western India. Among other names for this
civilization is the Harappan civilization in reference to the first excavated
city of Harappa.
• An alternative term for the culture is SaraswatiSindhu
civilization
• R.B.
Dayaram Sahni first discovered Harappa (on Ravi) in 1921. R.D. Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro in 1922.
Sir John Marshal played a crucial role in both these.
• Mediterranean, Proto-Australoid, Mongoloids and Alpines
formed the bulk of the population • More than 100 sites belonging to this
civilization have been excavated.
• According to radio-carbon dating, it spread from the year
2500-1750 B.C.
• Copper, bronze, silver and gold were known but not iron.
• Covered parts of Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat,
Rajasthan and some parts of Western U.P & J&K. It extended from Manda
in Jammu in the north to Daimabad in the south and from Alamgirpur in western
U.P. to Sutkagendor in Baluchistan in the west.
• The towns were divided into two parts: Upper part or
Citadel andthe Lower part. The Citadel was an oblong artificial platform some
30-50 feet high and about some 200-400 yards in area. It was enclosed by a
thick (13 m in Harappa) crenellated mud brick wall. The Citadel comprised of
public buildings whereas the lower part comprised of public dwellings.
• In Mohenjodaro, a big public bath (Great Bath) measuring 12
m by 7 m and 2.4 m deep has been found. The Great Bath was probably used for
ritual bathing.
• The Indus people sowed seeds in the flood plains in
November, when the flood water receded, and reaped their harvests of wheat and
barley in April, before the advent of the next flood.
• The people grew wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesamum, mustard,
rice (in Lothal), cotton, dates, melon, etc. The Indus people were thefirst to
produce cotton in the world. Horses weren‘t in regular use but elephant was
for transportation.
• Well-knit external and internal trade. There was no
metallic money in circulation and trade was carried through Barter System.
• Weights and measures of accuracy existed in Harappanculture
(found at Lothal). The weights were made of limestone, steatite, etc. and were
generally cubical in shape.
• 16 was the unit of measurement (16, 64, 160, 320).
• Flint
tool-work, shell-work, bangle-making (famous in Kalibangan), etc. were
practiced.
• The Harappan culture belongs to the Bronze Age and bronze
was made by mixing tin and copper. Tools were mostly made of copper and bronze.
Religious Life
• The main object of worship was the Mother Goddess or
Shakti.
• Many trees (peepal), animals (bull), birds (dove, pigeon)
and stones were worshipped. Unicorns were also worshipped. However no temple
has been found at that time.
• At Kalibangan and Lothal fire altars have been found.
Script
• The script is not alphabetical but pictographic. (about 600
undeciphered pictographs).
• The script has not been deciphered so far, but overlaps of
letters show that it was written from right to left in the first line and left
to right in the second line. This style is called‗Boustrophedon‘. End/Decay
• The Harappan culture lasted for around 1000 years.
• The invasion of the Aryans, recurrent floods (7 floods),
social breakup of Harappans, Earthquakes, successive alteration in the course
of the riverIndus and the subsequent drying up of the areas in and around the
major cities, etc. are listed as possible causes for the decline of the Indus
Valley Civilization.
Important Sites of the Indus Valley Civilization
1.
Harappa
·
It
is situated in Montgomery district of Punjab (Pakistan).
• Evidence of coffin burial and
cemetery H‘ culture.
• The dead were buried in the southern
portion of the fortified area, called cemetery R-37.
2. Mohenjo-daro
Also known as the‗Mound of the dead‘, it lies in Larkana
district of Sindh (Pakistan). Some of the specific findings during the excavations
of Mohenjodaro include: A college, a multi-pillared assembly hall. The Great
Bath A large granary (the largest building of Mohenjodaro) which suggests
extreme centralization as the ruling authorities must have first brought the
agricultural produce here and then redistributed it.
3. Alamgirpur
• The famous Harappan site is considered the eastern boundary
of the Indus culture. Findings suggest that Alamgirpur developed during the
late-Harappan culture. • The site is remarkable for providing the impression of
cloth on a trough.
4. Kalibangan
Kalibangan was an important Harappan
city. The word Kalibangan means‗black bangles‘. A ploughed field was the most
important discovery of the early excavations. Later excavations at Kalibangan
made the following specific discoveries:
• A wooden furrow •
Seven fire altars in a row on a platform suggesting the
practice of the cult of sacrifice.
• A tiled floor which bears intersecting designs of circles.
5.
Kot-Diji Kot-
Diji is known more as a pre Harappan
site. Houses were made of stone.
RigVedic Age (1500-1000B.C.)
The source of information of this period includes the
archeological evidences as well as the literary source i.e. Rig Veda. It is an
important source of information for this period. Concepts about Rig Vedic Age
• Rig Vedic society was much simple as compared to that of
the Indus Valley. The main occupation of Rig Vedic people was cattle rearing.
It was only in the later Vedic Age that theyadhered to the sedentary
agriculture
• There is no sign of urbanization during this period.
• It was altogether a rural-tribal economy.
• Horse and cow were the two most important animals during
this period.
• There has been no evidence of horse in the Indus Valley
Civilization, however the horse was the important animal of this age.
•Indira, Agni and Som were the important gods which were
worshipped. There is no evidence of worship of mother goddess or proto-Shiva as
in the case of Indus Valley Civilization.
Religious movements (6thCenturyB.C)
The sixth century B.C. was the age of religious unrest in the
history of India. This was the time when Vedic religion and philosophy
witnessed churnings and reactions from within and without. The churning from
within the Vedic religion was in the form of Upnishads which gave a serious
jolt to the cult of sacrifices; and gave emphasis on the knowledge as a vehicle
to achieve God. On the other hand Jainism, Buddhism and various other heterodox
sects emerged during this period as a reaction to the Vedic religion and
philosophy. While the Upnishads philosophy was aimed to rectify the Vedic
religion and thus strengthen it, the aim of Jainism, Buddhism and various other
heterodox sects was to dismantle it.
Buddhism
Gautama, the Buddha also known as Siddhartha, Sakyamuni and
Tathagata. Born in 563 BC (widely accepted), at Lumbini, near Kapilvastu, capital
of the Sakya republic. Left home at the age of 29 and attained Nirvana at the
age of 35 at Bodh Gaya. Deliveredhis first sermon at Sarnath. He attained
Mahaparinirvana at Kusinara in 483 BC.
The first Council was held
in 483 BC at Sattapanni cave near Rajagriha to compile the Sutta Pitaka and
Vinaya Pitaka.
The second council was
held at Vaisali in 383 BC.
Thethird council was held
at Pataliputra during the reign of Ashoka. 236 years after the death of Buddha. It was held under the
Presidentship of Moggliputta
Tissa to revise the scriptures.
The fourth council was
held during the reign of Kanishka in Kashmir under the Presidentship of
Vasumitra and Asvaghosha
and resulted in the division of Buddhists into Mahayanists and Hinayanists.
The Vinaya Pitaka:mainly deals with rules and
regulations, which the Buddha promulgated
it describes in detail the gradual development of the Sangha.
An account of the life and leaching of the Buddha is also given.
The Sutra Pitaka:
Consists chiefly of discourses delivered by Buddha himself on
different occasions. Few discourses delivered by Sariputta, Ananda. Moggalana
and others are also included in it. It lays down the principles of Buddhism.
The Abhidhamma Pitaka:
Contains the profound philosophy of the Buddha‘s teachings. It
investigates mind and matter, to help the understanding of things as they truly
are.
The Khandhakas:
contain regulations on the course or life in the monastic
order and have two sections-the Mahavagga and the Cullavagga. The thud part
-the Parivara is an insignificant composition by a Ceylonese monk. Among the
non-canonical literature Milindapanho, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa are important.
The later two are the great chronicles of Ceylon.
Major Events of Buddha’s Life and their Symbols
Birth: Lotus and Bull
Great Renunciation: Horse
Nirvana: Bodhi tree
First Sermon: Dharmachakra
or wheel
Parinirvana or Death:
Stupa
Four Noble Truths
The world is full of sorrows. Desire is root cause of sorrow.
If Desire is conquered, all sorrows can be removed. Desire can be removed by following
the eight-fold path.
Jainism
Life of Mahavira
Born in 540 BC
at Kundagrama near Vaisali.
Siddhartha was his father: Trisala his mother, Yasoda his
wife and Jameli was the daughter. Attained Kaivalya at Jrimbhikagrama in eastern
India at the age of 42. Died at the age of 72 in 468 BC at Pavapuri near
Rajagriha. He was called Jina or Jitendriya, Nirgrantha and Mahavira.
Way to Nirvana (Three Ratnas)
Right faith (Samyak vishwas) Right knowledge (Samyak jnan
Right conduct (Samyak karma)
The Principles of Jainism as Preached by Mahavira
Rejected the authorityof the Vedas and the Vedic rituals. Did
not believe in the existence of God. Believed in karma and the transmigration
of soul. Laid great emphasis on equality.
Five Main Teachings
Non-injury (ahimsa) Non-lying (saryai) Non-stealing (asateya)
Non-possession (aparigraha) Observe continence (Bralmmcharya).
